The number of Americans who read for pleasure has fallen by 40%, according to a new study.

Researchers at the University of Florida and University College London have found that between 2003 and 2023, daily reading for reasons other than work and study fell by about 3% each year.

The number saw a peak in 2004, with 28% of people qualifying, before falling to 16% in 2023. The data was taken from more than 236,000 Americans who participated in the American Time Use Survey and the study was published in the journal iScience. The definition of reading in the survey wasn’t limited to books; it also included magazines and newspapers in print, electronic or audio form.

Jill Sonke, study co-author, called it “a sustained, steady decline” and one that is “deeply concerning”.

“Reading has historically been a low-barrier, high-impact way to engage creatively and improve quality of life,” Sonke said. “When we lose one of the simplest tools in our public health toolkit, it’s a serious loss.”

While all groups saw a decline, there were bigger drops among certain groups such as Black Americans, people with lower incomes or education levels, and those in rural areas. More women than men also continue to read for fun.

Daisy Fancourt, study co-author, said: “Potentially the people who could benefit the most for their health – so people from disadvantaged groups – are actually benefiting the least.”

The study also showed that those who read for pleasure have tended to spend even more time reading than before and that the number of those who read with their children hasn’t changed.

“Our digital culture is certainly part of the story,” Sonke said of explanations to the figures. “But there are also structural issues – limited access to reading materials, economic insecurity and a national decline in leisure time. If you’re working multiple jobs or dealing with transportation barriers in a rural area, a trip to the library may just not be feasible.”

Last year in the US, sales of physical books rose slightly after two years of declines. Adult fiction was the main driver, with Kristin Hannah’s The Women leading the pack.

The literacy level in the US is estimated to be about 79%, which ranks as 36th globally.